Nerve Anatomy

Roles of the nervous system

Sensory input, control center, and integration (Process of deciding what to do)

CNS

Nervous system of the brain and spinal cord

PNS

The nervous system outside the CNS.

Afferent

Information being sent to the CNS

Efferent

Information being sent from the CNS

Polarized

When the Neuron is resting or inactive.

Depolarization

Occurs when sodium ions rush into the neuron.

Repolarization

When potassium ions diffuse out of the neuron. Restarting of the polarized period.

Muscle Physiology

Endomysium

A muscle fiber is enclosed in this delicate cconnective tissue sheath

Perimysium

Several sheathed muscle fibers are then wrapped in this

Epimysium

This covers the entire muscle.

Fascia

A bundle of perimysiums

Sarcolemma

The plasma membrane of a muscle cell

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

A specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum Store calcium and release it on demand.

Myofibril

Bands in a muscle

Sarcomere

Make up Myofibrils

Actin

Contractile protein

Myosin

Contain ATP enzymes that help split ATP.

Twitch

Single, brief, jerky contraction

Incomplete Tetanus

When a muscle is relaxing and contracting at a fast rate, however not fast enough to record no relaxation.

Fused Tetanus

When a muscle is contracting and shows no signs of relaxation

ATP

Used for muscle contractions

Direct phosphorylation

Contains creatine. After ATP is depleted ADP is left. CP transfers energy to ATP to regenerate ATP. CP supplies are exhausted within 20 seconds.

Aerobic Respiration

Series of metabolic paths that happen in the mitochondria. Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water releases energy. Slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen.

Anaerobic Glycosis

Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen. Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acide to produce ATP. Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid. Not efficient, but fast. Glucose is needed

Muscle Groups

Skeletal

Muscle that is attached to bone. Striated, contractions are voluntary.

Cardiac

Branching chains of cells; uninucleate, striations. Involunory contractions.

Smooth

Visceral. Single, fusiform, uninucleate; no striations. Involuntary contractions.

Origin

Muscle is attached to the immovable or less movable bone.

Insertion

Muscle is attached to the movable bone, and when the muscle contracts the insertion moves towards the origin.

Prime mover

Muscle that has the major responsibility for causing a particular movement

Antagonist

Muscles that oppose or reverse a movement

Flexion

Angle of two parts of a limb is decreased

Extension

Increasing the angle between two portions of a limb or parts of the body

Abduction

Movement of a limb away from the median line of the body.

Adduction

When a limb is moved from an outward position towards the median line.

Rotation

Partial revolving of a body part on that part long axis

Circumduction

Rotational movement of a limb in a ball and socket joint

Supination

Movement of the palm of the hand and the forearm upward by rotation

Pronation

The palm of the hand is moved from an upward facing position to a dowanrd facing position.

Isotonic

Muscle shortens and movement occurs

Isometric

Tension in the muscle increases, but the muscle does not contract

Atrophy

Decrease in the mass of the muscle

Hypertrophy

An increase in size of skeletal muscle through an increase in the size of its component cells.

Paralysis

Loss of muscle function for one or more muscles.

Spasm

Sudden, involuntary contraction of a muscle, a group of muscles

Naming

Direction of the muscle fibers, Relative size of the muscle, location of the muscle, number of origins, location of the muscle's origin and insertion, shape of the muscle, and action of the muscle all

Skeletal System

Support, Protection, Movement, Storage, Blood cell formation

=Five functions of bones

Spongy Bone

Small needlelike pieces of bone with lots of open spaces

Compact bone

Dense, looks smooth, and homogeneous

Diaphysis

Shaft of the bone. Makes up most of the bones length and is a compact bone.

Periosteum

Covers and protects the diaphysis. Is a fibrous connective tissue membrane.

Epiphysis

End of a long bone. Consists of a thin layer of compact bone enclosing an area filled with spongy bone.

Yellow marrow

Cavity of the shaft is primarily a storage area for fat tissue.

Red marrow

Confined to the cavities of spongy bones that produce red blood cells.

Freely movable

Shoulder and hip joints are examples of this type of joint

Slightly movable

Ribs and spine are examples of this type of joint

Immovable

Skull would be an example of this type of joint

Ball and Socket

Hip and shoulder joints are example of this joint

Hinge

Movement largely in one plane. Elbow would be an example of this joint.

Pivot

Ring of bone rotates. Wrists would be an example of this joint.

Gliding

Articulations slide on one another vertebrae would be an example of this joint.

Fibrous capsule

Encloses movable joints

Articular cartilage

Covers end of each bone

Synovial Fluid

Fills space between cartilage, lubricating fluid secreted by membrane lining capsule

Bursae

Flat sacs filled with synovial fluid

Tendon

Touch cords which attach muscles to bones

Ligament

Strong band connective tissues which connects bones to bones.

naming of bone

Axial skeleton

Skull, ribs, sternum, and vertebral column

Appendicular skeleton

Arms, legs, hands, feet and pelvis

cell cycle

Interphase

95% of the cell life.

Mitosis

Cell division

Prophase

Nuclear membrane breaks down. Chromatin turns into chromosomes. Nucleolus disappears and spindles appear

Metaphase

Chromosomes cluster and become aligned at the center of the spindle midway between the centrioles so that a straight line of chromsomes seen.

Anaphase

The centromeres that have held the chromatids together split and the chromatids (now called chromosomes again) beigin to move slowly apart toward opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase

Chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell uncoil to become threadlike chromatin again. The spindle breaks down and disappears, a nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass and nucleoli appear in

Cytokinesis

When the cell splits into two cells.

Cells & Tissues

Cells

Building block of life.

Nucleus

Control center of the cell. Contains DNA.

Plasma Membrane

Fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and seperates them from the surrounding environment. Contains two lipid layers aranged "tail to tail" where protein molecules float. Imperm

Cytoplasm

Cellurlar material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane.

Cytosol

Semitransparent fluid that supsends the other elements.

Rough ER

Studded with ribosomes. All building materials of cellurlar membranes are formed here.

Smooth ER

Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs.

Lysosomes

Break down nonusable cell structures and most foreign substances that enter the cell.

Peroxisomes

Molecular oxygen to detoxify a number of poisonous substances including alcohol and formaldehyde. It disarms free radicles.

Mitochondria

Threadlike organelles. Forms ATP.

Cytoskeleton

Elaborate structure of proteins that extend throughout the cytoplasm. Shapes and supports the cell. Supports other organelles and provides machinery needed for intracellurlar transport and cell moveme 

Selective Permeability

Barrier that allows some substances to pass through it while excluding others.

Simple Diffusion

 Process by which molecules tend to scatter themselves through the cell without an assistance. Lipid solubles and small molecules do this.

Osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane such as the plasma membrane. Passes through the pores of the membranes.

Facilitated Diffusions

Protein carrier is needed to transport larger molecules through the cell.

Isotonic diffusion

Water molecules move in and out of the cell at the same rate and cells stay the same shape.

Hypertonic solution

Water leaves a cell faster than water goes into a cell causing the cell to shrink.

Hypotonic solution

Water enters a cell faster than water going out of a cell causing the cell to swell.

Active Transport

When ATP is used to move substances through cells.

Solute pumping

Protein carriers use ATP to get through the plasma membrane.

Bulk Transport

Way to move substances that cannot be moved in any other way.

Exocytosis

Moves substances out of the cell. The sac of substances merge into the plasma membrane and then ruptures, spilling all the contents out of the cell.

Phagocytosis

Eats sacs of substances outside of the cell. White blood cells do this.

Pinocytosis

Plasma membrane inaginates to form a tiny pit and then its edges fuse aroudn the droplet of extracellular fluid containing dissolved proteins or fats.

Anatomical Terms and History

Anatomy

The branch of biology which deals with the study of gross features that can be seen with the unaided eye.

Physiology

The branch of biology that is concerned with all the physical and chemical processes that occur within the body of a living organism.

Eleven

The number of organ systems in the body

Integumentary

The organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages

Skeletal

bones cartilage ligaments and joints. Supports the body and provides framework for movement.

Muscular

Muscles mobility of the body

Nervous

Brain spinal cord nerves and sensory receptors. It is the control system of the body and acts quickly.

Endocrine

Glands. Uses hormones to control the body and acts slower.

Cardiovascular

Heart and blood. Used to carry nutrients oxygen hormones and other substances to tissues.

Lymphatic

Lymphatic vessels lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs (spleen and tonsils). 

Cleanses the body and returns blood back into the Cardiovascular system.

Respiratory

Keeps body supplied with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide

Digestive

Oral cavity esophagus stomach small and large intestines and rectum. Break down food and deliver the products to the blood for disposal to the body cells

Urinary

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

Reproductive

Produce offspring.

Maintaining Boundaries

We don't fall apart

Movement

Movement

Responsiveness

Sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and react to them.

Digestion

Process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood for delivery to all body cells.

Metabolism

Chemical reactions inside the body that includes breaking down complex substances into ATP.

Excretion

Process of removing wastes from the body.

Reproduction

Production of offspring

Growth

Increase in the number of cells.

Homeostasis

a dynamic state of the Human body. Regulates the body through the use of nervous and endocrine system sending electrical signals through hormones and nerves.

Receptors

Sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the environment called stimuli

Control Center. Determines the level at which a variable is maintained analyzes the information it receives and then determines the appropriate response or course of action

Effector

Provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus and returns the body back to normal.

Efferent Pathway

The pathway where information from the control center goes to the effector

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

Most homeostatic control mechanisms. Shuts off original stimulus or reduce its power. Positive Feedback Mechanisms

Rare. Pushes the stimulus farther. Blood clotting and birth.

Homeostatic Imbalance

When the body becomes more and more inefficient. Aging occurs during this stage.

Anatomical position

face front with palms sticking outwards.

Superior

Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above Inferior (Caudal) Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below Anterior (Ventral)Toward or at the front of the body; in front of

Posterior (Dorsal) Toward or at the backside of the body; behind Medial

Toward or at the midline of the body.

Lateral Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of Intermediate Between a more medial and a more lateral structure

Proximal Close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. Distal  Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

Superficial

Toward or at the body surface.

Deep

Away from the body surface; more internal

Median (Midsagittal) Cut through the center of the body vertically. Exposes left and right parts.

Frontal (Coronal)

Cut through the body length wise. Exposes the posterior and anterior parts.

Transverse (Cross)

Cut through the center of the body horizontally. Exposes the inferior and superior parts.

Hippocrates

Greek physician. Father of medicine. Known for the Hippocratic oath.

Galen

Dissection authority of the day. All his work was based off of animals. No human dissection at this time.

Andreas Vesalius

Father of anatomy. Through his meticulous dissections discovered errors based on non-human specimen.

William Harvey

First man to state that blood flowed around the body. Horse glass tube experiment to prove movement of the blood.

Marcello Malpighi

Demonstrated presence of capillaries which was only theorized by William Harvey.

Claude Bernard

Discovered CO (Carbon Monoxide) poisoning living cells.

Ivan Pavlov

Conditioned responses.

Karl Landsteiner

Developed nomenclature for typing human blood into four groups (A. B. AB. O.

Corneille Heymans

Showed the rate of respiration is regulated by chemistry of the blood leaving the heart.

Joseph Lister

Antiseptic. Use of sterile instruments and equipment. Patients then survived the surgery and post operation periord.

James Lind

Importance of vitamin C. Cured scurvy

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Biochemistry

Organic Compounds

Carbon containing compounds. Important organic compounds in the body are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid. Mainly covalent bonds.

Inorganic Compounds

Lack carbon and tend to be simpler and smaller molecules.

Water

Makes up 2/3 of our body weight.

High Heat Capacity

Takes longer to heat up and freeze. Causes us to not freeze or heat up quickly.

Polarity/solvent properties

Universal solvent. Breaks down many molecules.

Chemical Reactivity

Helps chemical reactions to break molecules.

Hydrolysis Reaction

When water molecules are added to the bonds of a larger molecule

Cushioning

Serves as a cushion to protect us.

Salts

Contain calcium and phosphorus. Found in bones and teeth.

Dissociation

When salts seperate into their ions when coming into contact with body fluids

Electrolytes

Charged ionic particles that conduct an electrical current in solution.

Acids

Sour taste. Releases hydrogen ions (H+) in detectable amounts. Acids are also known as proton donors.

Strong acids

Ionize completely and free all their protons

Weak Acids

Ionize incompletely

Bases

Bitter. Proton acceptors. Releases hydroxyl ion (OH-)

Neutralization reaction

When acids and bases mix and form water and salt.

PH Scale

Way to test acid and bases strengths.

7       Neutral

14      Basic

0         Acid

Buffers

Kidneys, lungs and chemicals that regulates acids and bases.

Synthesis Reaction

Building of cells through water.

Decomposition Reaction

Decomposition of a cell through the use of water.

Carbohydrates

Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen compound. Contains starches and sugars. Has 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom to 1 carbon atom.

monosaccharides

Simple sugars. Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose and deoxyribose.

Disaccharides

Double sugar. Formed when two simple sugars combine.

Polysaccharides

Long branching chains of simple sugars. Starch and glycogen.

Lipids

Fats. Insoluble in water.

Neutral Fats

Triglycerides are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. Most abundant and concentrated source of usable energy. Stored in fat deposits.

Phospholipids

Allow cells to decide what may enter or leave the cell.

Steroids

Cholesterol. Four interlocking rings of hydrogen and carbon.

Proteins

Account for over 50% of organic matter in the body.

Amino Acids

Building blocks of proteins. 20 different varieties.

Nucleic Acids

Make up genes for DNA. Direct growth and development. Dictate protein structures.

Nucleotides

Building blocks of Nucleic Acids. Adenine (A) Guanine (g) Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) and Uracil (U) make up the structures.

DNA

Genetic material found within the cell nucleus. Replicates itself exactly before a cell divides and provides the instructions for building every protein in the body.

RNA

Carries out the orders of the DNA.